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Soft-bed glaciers show a hydrology continuum

Seasonal ice-speed patterns on Icelandic and Norwegian glaciers reveal mixed, not purely channelized or distributed, soft-bed drainage.

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What hydrology picture do seasonal velocities support?

A continuum of soft-bed drainage, not a strict channelized-versus-distributed split.

When does Skálafellsjökull’s spring speed-up occur?

About 17 days after spring begins, not a specific weather event.

How variable is summer velocity there?

Remotely sensed summer variation is 5% of the mean; pressures stay high.

What fraction of summer inputs leaves as discharge in the GPR survey?

About 60%; winter discharge was five times inputs.

How often do winter speed-ups track warm air?

About 77% (daily GNSS) and 80% (12-day) when temperatures exceed 5 °C.

How many winter events occur per year on average?

11 events, averaging 17 days, from GNSS.

What satellite product provided 12-day velocities?

Sentinel-1 SAR imagery.

Why was Nigardsbreen used for Briksdalsbreen?

Briksdalsbreen retreated off its lake; nearby Nigardsbreen provided later satellite velocities.

What in situ sensors went into the till?

0.16 m wireless probes of water pressure, deformation, resistance, tilt, and temperature.

What diurnal velocity pattern occurs at Breiðamerkurjökull?

A double peak: afternoon (~15:00) and night (~03:00).

How repeatable are year-to-year velocity patterns?

Low variation (s.d. 7–15% of the mean), so each year’s pattern is similar.